From the Bronze Age until Today, The history of Greece is defined by its nationhood rather than its geography. The Greek concept of nationality is based on language, religion, descent, and customs rather than merely on land. Early Greek history is characterized by internal struggles, beginning with the Mycenaean and Minoan civilizations of the Bronze Age and continuing through the emergence of competing city-states in the first millennium BC. In 338 BC, after defeating and uniting the other Greek city-states, Philip II of Macedon, at the Battle of Chaeronea, Greece, became under the rule of one King, with  Alexander the Great following the plans of his father and creating his empire which was the beginning of the Hellenistic period. Following the Romans' victory over the Macedonians in 168 BC, Greece was incorporated as a province of the Roman Empire. As part of the Eastern Empire, Greece was governed from Constantinople and, by the 11th century, became a significant player in the new Orthodox Christian Byzantine world. The fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453 marked the disappearance of Greece as a political entity. However, the legacy of Classical Greece inspired the Greeks to fight for independence. In 1821, they initiated the Greek War of Independence. By 1830, the European Great Powers established a protectorate over Greece, signifying the end of Ottoman rule. Today, Greece is an established democracy and a member of the European Union. Prehistoric Greece: During the Bronze Age, three distinct civilizations thrived in Greece: the Cycladic civilization, which emerged in the 3rd millennium BC; the Minoan civilization, centered on Crete but with a strong influence throughout the Aegean islands; and the Mycenaean civilization, based on the mainland but extending to Crete around 1450 BC as the Minoans began to decline. Both the Minoan and Mycenaean cultures reached their peak during the Palace periods of the 2nd millennium BC. The Dark Ages and Archaic Greece: After 1200 BC, Greece entered a period of darkness characterized by widespread poverty and a decrease in population. However, around 800 BC, a cultural revival began, coinciding with city-states' emergence across Greece. This revival inspired new styles of warfare, art, and politics. Greek colonies were established as far away as the Black Sea, present-day Syria, North Africa, and the western Mediterranean. The identity of Greece was shaped by the areas where the Greeks lived. Classical Greece: The Classical period is often regarded as the pinnacle of Greek civilization. It was marked by around 150 years of exceptional creativity in thinking, writing, theater, and the arts. This era produced renowned tragedians such as Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, along with influential philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. It was also a time of significant warfare and bloodshed. The Peloponnesian War, which saw the city-state of Athens and its allies fighting against Sparta and its allies, dominated the latter part of the 5th century BC. In the 4th century, Athens, Sparta, and Thebes vied for power, only to be ultimately defeated by Philip II of Macedon in 338 BC. Hellenistic Greece: Alexander the Great of Macedon fulfilled his father Philip's plans for the conquest of the Persians. He went on to create a vast empire that extended to India in the east and Egypt in the south. The Hellenistic period was remarkable for the spread of Greek language, religion, and culture throughout the territories conquered by Alexander. It lasted about 300 years after Alexander's death in 323 BC and was eventually replaced by Roman control in 168 AD. After the Romans established control over Greece, it became the cultural center of the Roman Empire. The Roman nobility sent their sons to be educated in Athens' schools of philosophy. The end of the Roman civil wars between prominent Roman statesmen was fought on Greek soil, culminating in the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. In 323 AD, Emperor Constantine founded a new eastern capital, Constantinople; later, the empire was divided into the Greek-speaking East and the Latin-speaking West. Byzantine and Crusader Greece: Under the Byzantine Empire, which succeeded the Eastern Roman Empire at the end of the 4th century, Greece became predominantly Orthodox in religion and was divided into administrative regions known as themes. In 1204, when the capital, Constantinople, fell to the Crusaders, Greece experienced further division, primarily between the Venetians and the Franks. Although the Byzantine Greeks managed to recover Constantinople and Mystras in 1261, the Ottoman capture of Constantinople in 1453, followed by the takeover of Trebizond and Mystras in 1460-61, marked the end of the Byzantine Empire. This period left behind a rich legacy of hundreds of churches and a wealth of religious art. Venetian and Ottoman Greece: Following the Ottomans' momentous capture of Constantinople in 1453 and their conquest of almost all the remaining Greek territories by 1461, the Greek state effectively ceased to exist for the next 350 years. While Constantinople became the capital of the vast Ottoman Empire, it also remained the principal center of the Greek population and the focus of Greek aspirations for resurgence. The Ionian Islands, Crete, and a few coastal enclaves were seized for long periods by the Venetians. This experience was more intrusive than the generally inefficient tolerance of the Ottomans, but it left a rich cultural and architectural legacy. The Making of Modern Greece: The Greek War of Independence marked the end of Ottoman rule and the beginning of the "Great Idea," an ambitious project aimed at uniting all Greek people under one flag. Initially, the expansion plans were successful; during the 19th century, Greece managed to double its national territory and reassert its sovereignty over many islands. However, an attempt to seize Asia Minor by force after World War I ended in disaster. Modern Greece: The years following 1922 were difficult for the Greek people, followed by an invasion in 1940, which brought about Italian, German, and Bulgarian occupation, culminating in a Civil War between 1946 and 1949, leaving a legacy of division. Greece has now emerged as an established democracy and is a member of the European Union.